| Total N | n Female | n Male | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 721 | 498 | 223 |
| Australia | 2115 | 1089 | 1026 |
| Austria | 1351 | 724 | 627 |
| Bangladesh | 366 | 203 | 163 |
| Belgium | 1138 | 467 | 671 |
| Bolivia | 29 | 17 | 12 |
| Brazil | 1757 | 1052 | 705 |
| Bulgaria | 632 | 414 | 218 |
| Canada | 954 | 579 | 375 |
| Chile | 97 | 63 | 34 |
| China | 1030 | 505 | 525 |
| Colombia | 1211 | 764 | 447 |
| Costa Rica | 25 | 9 | 16 |
| Croatia | 503 | 261 | 242 |
| Cuba | 43 | 22 | 21 |
| Denmark | 553 | 273 | 280 |
| Dominican Republic | 36 | 29 | 7 |
| Ecuador | 148 | 82 | 66 |
| El Salvador | 28 | 15 | 13 |
| Finland | 649 | 314 | 335 |
| France | 1107 | 606 | 501 |
| Germany | 1537 | 772 | 765 |
| Greece | 633 | 221 | 412 |
| Guatemala | 48 | 21 | 27 |
| Honduras | 24 | 17 | 7 |
| Hungary | 501 | 258 | 243 |
| India | 589 | 242 | 347 |
| Iraq | 528 | 255 | 273 |
| Ireland | 728 | 485 | 243 |
| Israel | 1242 | 629 | 613 |
| Italy | 1248 | 675 | 573 |
| Japan | 1145 | 586 | 559 |
| Latvia | 993 | 630 | 363 |
| Mexico | 1235 | 622 | 613 |
| Morocco | 614 | 328 | 286 |
| Nepal | 338 | 180 | 158 |
| Netherlands | 1286 | 598 | 688 |
| New Zealand | 508 | 255 | 253 |
| Nicaragua | 16 | 10 | 6 |
| Nigeria | 516 | 252 | 264 |
| North Macedonia | 674 | 380 | 294 |
| Norway | 521 | 282 | 239 |
| Pakistan | 462 | 247 | 215 |
| Panama | 18 | 12 | 6 |
| Paraguay | 16 | 14 | 2 |
| Peru | 91 | 41 | 50 |
| Philippines | 497 | 251 | 246 |
| Poland | 1797 | 890 | 907 |
| Puerto Rico* | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| Romania | 494 | 244 | 250 |
| Russia | 507 | 271 | 236 |
| Senegal | 298 | 108 | 190 |
| Serbia | 715 | 529 | 186 |
| Singapore | 515 | 265 | 250 |
| Slovakia | 1091 | 541 | 550 |
| South Africa | 563 | 422 | 141 |
| South Korea | 486 | 227 | 259 |
| Spain | 1077 | 353 | 724 |
| Sweden | 1552 | 631 | 921 |
| Switzerland | 1053 | 534 | 519 |
| Taiwan | 833 | 419 | 414 |
| Turkey | 1423 | 731 | 692 |
| Ukraine | 577 | 303 | 274 |
| United Arab Emirates | 182 | 88 | 94 |
| United Kingdom | 544 | 278 | 266 |
| United States | 1458 | 747 | 711 |
| Uruguay | 49 | 34 | 15 |
| Venezuela | 96 | 54 | 42 |
Note. * = sample too small to be included in analysis below
Â
| mean F | SD F | mean M | SD M | t | df | d | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 8.44 | 1.44 | 8.02 | 1.44 | -3.42 | 392.5 | 0.09 | .001* |
| Australia | 7.79 | 1.78 | 7.14 | 1.78 | -8.46 | 2110.82 | 0.12 | < .001** |
| Austria | 8.09 | 1.58 | 7.68 | 1.58 | -4.81 | 1322.95 | 0.08 | < .001** |
| Bangladesh | 8.81 | 1.29 | 8.53 | 1.29 | -2.16 | 353.12 | 0.32 | .031* |
| Belgium | 8.12 | 1.37 | 7.52 | 1.37 | -6.94 | 1065.43 | 0 | < .001** |
| Bolivia | 8.05 | 1.56 | 8.52 | 1.56 | 0.86 | 25.61 | -0.45 | .398 |
| Brazil | 8.7 | 1.37 | 8.08 | 1.37 | -8.1 | 1271.37 | 0.05 | < .001** |
| Bulgaria | 8.34 | 1.75 | 8.06 | 1.75 | -1.98 | 444.45 | 0.29 | .049* |
| Canada | 8.12 | 1.67 | 7.58 | 1.67 | -4.63 | 753.2 | 0.17 | < .001** |
| Chile | 8.36 | 1.4 | 7.8 | 1.4 | -1.86 | 66.54 | 0.47 | .067 |
| China | 7.58 | 1.28 | 7.61 | 1.28 | 0.41 | 1027.93 | 0 | .680 |
| Colombia | 8.47 | 1.5 | 8.12 | 1.5 | -3.62 | 839.78 | 0.09 | < .001** |
| Costa Rica | 8.24 | 1.6 | 7.95 | 1.6 | -0.47 | 14.4 | -0.74 | .648 |
| Croatia | 7.94 | 1.76 | 7.2 | 1.76 | -4.72 | 498.58 | 0.18 | < .001** |
| Cuba | 8.87 | 1.57 | 8.91 | 1.57 | 0.09 | 40.68 | 0.14 | .927 |
| Denmark | 6.79 | 1.83 | 7.42 | 1.83 | 4.01 | 550.51 | -0.03 | < .001** |
| Dominican Republic | 8.99 | 1.32 | 7.66 | 1.32 | -1.92 | 7.79 | -0.25 | .092 |
| Ecuador | 8.21 | 1.41 | 8.2 | 1.41 | -0.02 | 137.1 | -0.17 | .986 |
| El Salvador | 8.53 | 1.4 | 8.4 | 1.4 | -0.24 | 24.71 | 0.09 | .812 |
| Finland | 7.97 | 1.47 | 7.29 | 1.47 | -5.45 | 644.03 | 0.3 | < .001** |
| France | 7.15 | 1.69 | 6.77 | 1.69 | -3.77 | 1064.53 | 0.07 | < .001** |
| Germany | 7.39 | 2.02 | 7.09 | 2.02 | -3.07 | 1527.98 | 0.18 | .002* |
| Greece | 8.58 | 1.19 | 7.93 | 1.19 | -5.97 | 543.09 | 0.34 | < .001** |
| Guatemala | 9.19 | 1.07 | 8.23 | 1.07 | -2.39 | 44.36 | -0.35 | .021* |
| Honduras | 9.15 | 1.3 | 8.69 | 1.3 | -0.88 | 12.98 | 0.53 | .394 |
| Hungary | 8.39 | 1.49 | 7.69 | 1.49 | -5.01 | 489.28 | 0.22 | < .001** |
| India | 8.47 | 1.48 | 8.48 | 1.48 | 0.12 | 550.15 | 0.05 | .903 |
| Iraq | 7.86 | 1.66 | 7.71 | 1.66 | -1.02 | 525.25 | -0.05 | .310 |
| Ireland | 8.71 | 1.17 | 8.25 | 1.17 | -4.64 | 438.3 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Israel | 8.46 | 1.42 | 8.04 | 1.42 | -4.85 | 1208.38 | 0.2 | < .001** |
| Italy | 7.71 | 1.64 | 7.18 | 1.64 | -5.69 | 1208.65 | 0.08 | < .001** |
| Japan | 6.41 | 1.59 | 6.02 | 1.59 | -4.27 | 1142.94 | 0.07 | < .001** |
| Latvia | 7.36 | 1.74 | 6.44 | 1.74 | -7.63 | 700.8 | 0.4 | < .001** |
| Mexico | 8.47 | 1.49 | 8.16 | 1.49 | -3.52 | 1221.74 | -0.03 | < .001** |
| Morocco | 8.1 | 1.77 | 7.7 | 1.77 | -2.77 | 596.76 | 0.08 | .006* |
| Nepal | 8.69 | 1.35 | 8.12 | 1.35 | -3.55 | 314.48 | 0.17 | < .001** |
| Netherlands | 8.05 | 1.36 | 7.42 | 1.36 | -7.86 | 1282.99 | 0.27 | < .001** |
| New Zealand | 7.23 | 1.74 | 8.03 | 1.74 | 5.46 | 500.89 | 0.01 | < .001** |
| Nicaragua | 8.18 | 1.78 | 8.63 | 1.78 | 0.52 | 11.41 | -0.35 | .615 |
| Nigeria | 8.76 | 1.43 | 8.6 | 1.43 | -1.3 | 513.53 | -0.1 | .194 |
| North Macedonia | 8.45 | 1.45 | 7.86 | 1.45 | -4.68 | 568.38 | 0.1 | < .001** |
| Norway | 8.32 | 1.47 | 7.56 | 1.47 | -5.74 | 496.76 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| Pakistan | 8.56 | 1.5 | 7.96 | 1.5 | -3.75 | 410.07 | -0.01 | < .001** |
| Panama | 8.4 | 1.93 | 8.63 | 1.93 | 0.29 | 13.6 | -0.2 | .773 |
| Paraguay | 8.2 | 1.5 | 7.3 | 1.5 | -1.12 | 1.75 | 0.84 | .394 |
| Peru | 7.9 | 1.64 | 8.27 | 1.64 | 1.09 | 83.37 | -0.15 | .280 |
| Philippines | 8.34 | 1.67 | 8.07 | 1.67 | -1.84 | 494.83 | 0.02 | .066 |
| Poland | 7.71 | 1.76 | 7.17 | 1.76 | -6.43 | 1793.8 | 0.22 | < .001** |
| Puerto Rico | 9.8 | - | 9 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Romania | 7.96 | 1.83 | 7.6 | 1.83 | -2.27 | 488.56 | 0.13 | .024* |
| Russia | 7.65 | 1.83 | 7.12 | 1.83 | -3.33 | 498.99 | 0.19 | .001* |
| Senegal | 8.54 | 1.64 | 8.24 | 1.64 | -1.54 | 223.13 | 0.02 | .124 |
| Serbia | 8.41 | 1.57 | 7.96 | 1.57 | -3.3 | 315 | 0.26 | .001* |
| Singapore | 7.56 | 1.7 | 7.21 | 1.7 | -2.43 | 512.97 | -0.17 | .016* |
| Slovakia | 7.8 | 1.63 | 7.14 | 1.63 | -6.55 | 1088.82 | 0.37 | < .001** |
| South Africa | 8.89 | 1.16 | 8.29 | 1.16 | -4.39 | 200.46 | 0.38 | < .001** |
| South Korea | 6.85 | 1.58 | 6.7 | 1.58 | -1.02 | 477.13 | -0.09 | .307 |
| Spain | 8.47 | 1.3 | 7.97 | 1.3 | -5.59 | 788.67 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Sweden | 8.51 | 1.25 | 7.83 | 1.25 | -9.54 | 1512.41 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Switzerland | 7.53 | 1.75 | 6.83 | 1.75 | -6.63 | 1050.86 | 0.06 | < .001** |
| Taiwan | 6.71 | 1.58 | 6.61 | 1.58 | -0.95 | 830.97 | -0.15 | .341 |
| Turkey | 8.21 | 1.61 | 7.78 | 1.61 | -4.75 | 1386.97 | 0.19 | < .001** |
| Ukraine | 7.96 | 1.57 | 7.14 | 1.57 | -6.19 | 565.45 | 0.05 | < .001** |
| United Arab Emirates | 8.65 | 1.4 | 8.25 | 1.4 | -1.8 | 179.31 | 0.22 | .074 |
| United Kingdom | 8.85 | 1.14 | 8.2 | 1.14 | -6.01 | 512.82 | 0.33 | < .001** |
| United States | 7.67 | 1.95 | 7.06 | 1.95 | -6.26 | 1454.12 | -0.22 | < .001** |
| Uruguay | 8.24 | 1.39 | 7.89 | 1.39 | -0.61 | 20.36 | 0.14 | .551 |
| Venezuela | 8.37 | 1.98 | 8.45 | 1.98 | 0.22 | 93.99 | -0.12 | .829 |
Note. * = sig. at p < .05; ** = sig. at p < .001
Â
Figure 1: Effect size for gender differences in Internalization across countries
| Total N | n Female | n Male | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 721 | 498 | 223 |
| Australia | 2118 | 1091 | 1027 |
| Austria | 1371 | 731 | 640 |
| Bangladesh | 370 | 207 | 163 |
| Belgium | 1149 | 470 | 679 |
| Bolivia | 29 | 17 | 12 |
| Brazil | 1765 | 1057 | 708 |
| Bulgaria | 638 | 417 | 221 |
| Canada | 956 | 580 | 376 |
| Chile | 97 | 63 | 34 |
| China | 1030 | 505 | 525 |
| Colombia | 1222 | 771 | 451 |
| Costa Rica | 25 | 9 | 16 |
| Croatia | 507 | 263 | 244 |
| Cuba | 43 | 22 | 21 |
| Denmark | 553 | 273 | 280 |
| Dominican Republic | 36 | 29 | 7 |
| Ecuador | 148 | 82 | 66 |
| El Salvador | 28 | 15 | 13 |
| Finland | 649 | 314 | 335 |
| France | 1112 | 610 | 502 |
| Germany | 1581 | 794 | 787 |
| Greece | 633 | 221 | 412 |
| Guatemala | 48 | 21 | 27 |
| Honduras | 24 | 17 | 7 |
| Hungary | 505 | 260 | 245 |
| India | 608 | 254 | 354 |
| Iraq | 535 | 255 | 280 |
| Ireland | 732 | 487 | 245 |
| Israel | 1243 | 631 | 612 |
| Italy | 1257 | 679 | 578 |
| Japan | 1151 | 588 | 563 |
| Latvia | 993 | 630 | 363 |
| Mexico | 1243 | 624 | 619 |
| Morocco | 630 | 333 | 297 |
| Nepal | 341 | 182 | 159 |
| Netherlands | 1296 | 602 | 694 |
| New Zealand | 509 | 256 | 253 |
| Nicaragua | 16 | 10 | 6 |
| Nigeria | 522 | 256 | 266 |
| North Macedonia | 688 | 385 | 303 |
| Norway | 526 | 282 | 244 |
| Pakistan | 467 | 249 | 218 |
| Panama | 18 | 12 | 6 |
| Paraguay | 16 | 14 | 2 |
| Peru | 91 | 41 | 50 |
| Philippines | 500 | 252 | 248 |
| Poland | 1797 | 890 | 907 |
| Puerto Rico* | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| Romania | 498 | 247 | 251 |
| Russia | 507 | 271 | 236 |
| Senegal | 318 | 115 | 203 |
| Serbia | 725 | 535 | 190 |
| Singapore | 517 | 266 | 251 |
| Slovakia | 1096 | 544 | 552 |
| South Africa | 604 | 450 | 154 |
| South Korea | 489 | 230 | 259 |
| Spain | 1089 | 357 | 732 |
| Sweden | 1564 | 635 | 929 |
| Switzerland | 1053 | 534 | 519 |
| Taiwan | 833 | 419 | 414 |
| Turkey | 1431 | 734 | 697 |
| Ukraine | 577 | 303 | 274 |
| United Arab Emirates | 185 | 90 | 95 |
| United Kingdom | 545 | 278 | 267 |
| United States | 1462 | 751 | 711 |
| Uruguay | 49 | 34 | 15 |
| Venezuela | 96 | 54 | 42 |
Note. * = sample too small to be included in analysis below
Â
| mean F | SD F | mean M | SD M | t | df | d | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 5.67 | 2.26 | 5.47 | 2.26 | -1.1 | 425.98 | 0.09 | .272 |
| Australia | 5.58 | 1.99 | 5.33 | 1.99 | -2.87 | 2093.45 | 0.12 | .004* |
| Austria | 5.08 | 2.07 | 4.92 | 2.07 | -1.49 | 1357.23 | 0.08 | .137 |
| Bangladesh | 6.29 | 2.1 | 5.59 | 2.1 | -3 | 330.38 | 0.32 | .003* |
| Belgium | 4.75 | 1.85 | 4.74 | 1.85 | -0.01 | 1048.03 | 0 | .989 |
| Bolivia | 5.89 | 2.05 | 6.77 | 2.05 | 1.18 | 24.87 | -0.45 | .250 |
| Brazil | 6.11 | 2.06 | 5.98 | 2.06 | -1.18 | 1431.75 | 0.06 | .238 |
| Bulgaria | 5.48 | 2.27 | 4.79 | 2.27 | -3.46 | 425.37 | 0.29 | .001* |
| Canada | 5.2 | 1.8 | 4.88 | 1.8 | -2.51 | 733.9 | 0.17 | .012* |
| Chile | 5.93 | 2.15 | 4.88 | 2.15 | -2.1 | 61.15 | 0.47 | .039* |
| China | 6.44 | 1.51 | 6.44 | 1.51 | -0.07 | 1025.55 | 0 | .944 |
| Colombia | 5.85 | 2.26 | 5.62 | 2.26 | -1.63 | 925.07 | 0.1 | .103 |
| Costa Rica | 4.58 | 1.85 | 6.21 | 1.85 | 1.86 | 21.02 | -0.74 | .077 |
| Croatia | 5.22 | 2.07 | 4.87 | 2.07 | -1.99 | 505 | 0.18 | .047* |
| Cuba | 7.25 | 2.66 | 6.91 | 2.66 | -0.44 | 40.94 | 0.14 | .665 |
| Denmark | 4.46 | 2.01 | 4.52 | 2.01 | 0.36 | 550.92 | -0.03 | .722 |
| Dominican Republic | 6.83 | 2.36 | 7.37 | 2.36 | 0.83 | 17.32 | -0.25 | .417 |
| Ecuador | 6.04 | 2.34 | 6.43 | 2.34 | 1.03 | 141.47 | -0.17 | .306 |
| El Salvador | 4.96 | 2.95 | 4.68 | 2.95 | -0.23 | 23.96 | 0.09 | .818 |
| Finland | 4.09 | 1.98 | 3.49 | 1.98 | -3.87 | 643.85 | 0.3 | < .001** |
| France | 5.37 | 1.89 | 5.24 | 1.89 | -1.12 | 1067.69 | 0.07 | .262 |
| Germany | 4.61 | 2.22 | 4.22 | 2.22 | -3.57 | 1578.1 | 0.18 | < .001** |
| Greece | 4.98 | 1.73 | 4.38 | 1.73 | -4.11 | 462.59 | 0.34 | < .001** |
| Guatemala | 5.56 | 2.28 | 6.38 | 2.28 | 1.18 | 44.64 | -0.35 | .243 |
| Honduras | 7.88 | 1.85 | 6.94 | 1.85 | -1.16 | 11.6 | 0.53 | .271 |
| Hungary | 5.68 | 2.12 | 5.23 | 2.12 | -2.41 | 502.54 | 0.21 | .016* |
| India | 5.05 | 2.48 | 5.01 | 2.48 | -0.17 | 512.15 | 0.01 | .863 |
| Iraq | 5.81 | 1.82 | 5.87 | 1.82 | 0.33 | 531.71 | -0.03 | .744 |
| Ireland | 5.19 | 1.99 | 4.57 | 1.99 | -3.92 | 481.79 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Israel | 5.18 | 2.03 | 4.78 | 2.03 | -3.42 | 1239.94 | 0.19 | .001* |
| Italy | 5.94 | 1.94 | 5.78 | 1.94 | -1.51 | 1228.86 | 0.09 | .132 |
| Japan | 4.5 | 1.68 | 4.38 | 1.68 | -1.18 | 1141.04 | 0.07 | .236 |
| Latvia | 5.17 | 1.87 | 4.42 | 1.87 | -6.03 | 747.14 | 0.4 | < .001** |
| Mexico | 6.11 | 2.3 | 6.17 | 2.3 | 0.48 | 1240.07 | -0.03 | .629 |
| Morocco | 5.31 | 2.24 | 5.14 | 2.24 | -0.96 | 615.25 | 0.08 | .338 |
| Nepal | 6.75 | 1.74 | 6.46 | 1.74 | -1.52 | 327.02 | 0.17 | .130 |
| Netherlands | 5.06 | 1.91 | 4.53 | 1.91 | -4.87 | 1282.91 | 0.27 | < .001** |
| New Zealand | 5.4 | 1.9 | 5.35 | 1.9 | -0.27 | 506.78 | 0.02 | .785 |
| Nicaragua | 5.42 | 3.22 | 6.43 | 3.22 | 0.65 | 11.68 | -0.35 | .527 |
| Nigeria | 7.1 | 2 | 7.29 | 2 | 1.14 | 512.1 | -0.1 | .256 |
| North Macedonia | 5.41 | 2.19 | 5.22 | 2.19 | -1.15 | 652.48 | 0.09 | .250 |
| Norway | 5.08 | 1.88 | 4.52 | 1.88 | -3.55 | 520.43 | 0.31 | < .001** |
| Pakistan | 6.02 | 1.86 | 6.02 | 1.86 | -0.04 | 444.72 | 0 | .967 |
| Panama | 5.57 | 2.29 | 6.07 | 2.29 | 0.32 | 7.26 | -0.2 | .758 |
| Paraguay | 6.51 | 2.65 | 4.5 | 2.65 | -2.33 | 6.88 | 0.84 | .054 |
| Peru | 5.7 | 2.19 | 6.04 | 2.19 | 0.71 | 87.2 | -0.15 | .478 |
| Philippines | 6.58 | 2.04 | 6.55 | 2.04 | -0.19 | 495.11 | 0.02 | .852 |
| Poland | 5.67 | 1.96 | 5.25 | 1.96 | -4.71 | 1785.89 | 0.22 | < .001** |
| Puerto Rico | 8.8 | - | 6.8 | - | - | - | - | - |
| Romania | 6.37 | 1.98 | 6.11 | 1.98 | -1.51 | 492.41 | 0.14 | .133 |
| Russia | 4.25 | 2.04 | 3.86 | 2.04 | -2.14 | 494.62 | 0.19 | .033* |
| Senegal | 5.51 | 2.29 | 5.54 | 2.29 | 0.09 | 261.84 | -0.01 | .928 |
| Serbia | 4.49 | 2.26 | 3.9 | 2.26 | -3.24 | 355.4 | 0.26 | .001* |
| Singapore | 5.43 | 1.86 | 5.74 | 1.86 | 1.92 | 514.36 | -0.17 | .056 |
| Slovakia | 5.84 | 2.01 | 5.1 | 2.01 | -6.05 | 1093.94 | 0.37 | < .001** |
| South Africa | 6.08 | 2.1 | 5.21 | 2.1 | -4.18 | 249.59 | 0.41 | < .001** |
| South Korea | 6.03 | 1.54 | 6.16 | 1.54 | 0.96 | 468.68 | -0.09 | .339 |
| Spain | 5.39 | 1.98 | 4.77 | 1.98 | -4.89 | 711.96 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| Sweden | 5.07 | 2.02 | 4.43 | 2.02 | -6.11 | 1359.93 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| Switzerland | 4.95 | 1.97 | 4.84 | 1.97 | -0.9 | 1051 | 0.06 | .369 |
| Taiwan | 4.97 | 1.75 | 5.25 | 1.75 | 2.21 | 821.58 | -0.15 | .027* |
| Turkey | 6.17 | 2.39 | 5.73 | 2.39 | -3.67 | 1426.52 | 0.19 | < .001** |
| Ukraine | 4.44 | 2.11 | 4.32 | 2.11 | -0.64 | 545.09 | 0.05 | .521 |
| United Arab Emirates | 6.14 | 1.81 | 5.68 | 1.81 | -1.59 | 181.6 | 0.23 | .113 |
| United Kingdom | 4.86 | 2.08 | 4.2 | 2.08 | -3.78 | 543 | 0.32 | < .001** |
| United States | 5.85 | 2 | 6.31 | 2 | 4.1 | 1422.19 | -0.22 | < .001** |
| Uruguay | 5.42 | 2.28 | 5.11 | 2.28 | -0.45 | 27.87 | 0.14 | .655 |
| Venezuela | 5.93 | 2.73 | 6.23 | 2.73 | 0.58 | 92.37 | -0.12 | .560 |
Note. * = sig. at p < .05; ** = sig. at p < .001
Â
Figure 2: Effect size for gender differences in Symbolization across countries